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If g is a primitive root modulo p, then g is also a primitive root modulo all powers p k unless g p −1 ≡ 1 (mod p 2); in that case, g + p is. [15] If g is a primitive root modulo p k, then g is also a primitive root modulo all smaller powers of p. If g is a primitive root modulo p k, then either g or g + p k (whichever one is odd) is a ...
A method analogous to piece-wise linear approximation but using only arithmetic instead of algebraic equations, uses the multiplication tables in reverse: the square root of a number between 1 and 100 is between 1 and 10, so if we know 25 is a perfect square (5 × 5), and 36 is a perfect square (6 × 6), then the square root of a number greater than or equal to 25 but less than 36, begins with ...
As for every cubic polynomial, these roots may be expressed in terms of square and cube roots. However, as these three roots are all real, this is casus irreducibilis, and any such expression involves non-real cube roots. As Φ 8 (x) = x 4 + 1, the four primitive eighth roots of unity are the square roots of the primitive fourth roots, ± i.
Analogously, the inverses of tetration are often called the super-root, and the super-logarithm (In fact, all hyperoperations greater than or equal to 3 have analogous inverses); e.g., in the function =, the two inverses are the cube super-root of y and the super-logarithm base y of x.
The rods were used to multiply, divide and even find the square roots and cube roots of numbers. The second device was a promptuary (Latin promptuarium meaning storehouse) and consisted of a large set of strips that could multiply multidigit numbers more easily than the bones. In combination with a table of reciprocals, it could also divide ...
The twelfth root of two or (or equivalently /) is an algebraic irrational number, approximately equal to 1.0594631. It is most important in Western music theory , where it represents the frequency ratio ( musical interval ) of a semitone ( Play ⓘ ) in twelve-tone equal temperament .
As an example, a cube with sides of length 1 cm will have a surface area of 6 cm 2 and a volume of 1 cm 3. The surface to volume ratio for this cube is thus The surface to volume ratio for this cube is thus
By 1970, a calculator could be made using just a few chips of low power consumption, allowing portable models powered from rechargeable batteries. The first handheld calculator was a 1967 prototype called Cal Tech, whose development was led by Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments in a research project to produce a portable calculator. It could add ...